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Nina T Harawa, Charles R. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Soc Sci Med. Author manuscript; available in PMC Jul 1. Nina T Harawa Charles R. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Chandra Ford: ude. Copyright notice. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Soc Sci Med.
See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract Although social stratification persists in the US, differentially influencing the well-being of ethnically defined groups, ethnicity concepts and their implications for health disparities remain under-examined.
Keywords: USA, ethnic groups, ethnicity, health disparities, race relations, social epidemiology, social stratification, concepts. Table 1 Selected attributional and relational uses of ethnicity concepts. Phenotype e. Surname To use directory listings to increase sample size of targeted groups SH: Ancestry — European privileged RQ: Are patients with Arab surnames triaged differently than others?
Immigrant status To assess patient eligibility for services SH: Immigration — non-immigrants privileged RQ: In what ways do experiences with law enforcement vary for immigrants relative to non-immigrants? Religion To identify congregations with whom to co-sponsor health fairs SH: Religion - Christianity privileged RQ: What kinds of discriminatory treatment do religious minorities experience? Open in a separate window. Interaction between Race and Ethnicity The relationship between ethnicity and race is intersectional.
Ethnicity-related diversity among Latinos Hispanics have varying genetic and cultural mixes, reflecting intermixing primarily between European, African and indigenous ancestors. Ethnic heterogeneity among blacks Regardless of phenotype e. Ethnic heterogeneity among Asians and Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders The OMB established the racial categories 1 Asian and 2 Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander from the former, Asian or Pacific Islander, in as a result of lobbying by subpopulations who believed the former category overrepresented persons with ancestry in east Asia i.
Ethnic heterogeneity among whites Membership in the white racial category has always been contested Ignatiev Table 2 Recommendations for conducting research using ethnicity concepts a. Future Research This paper contributes new approaches for conceptualizing and measuring ethnicity concepts when studying the social determinants of ethnic health inequities. Acknowledgments This project received support from the W. Footnotes Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
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People choosing black AA self- identification are significantly less likely to have higher presented only in the last column. This is because of t he levels of depressive symptoms. As in Table 6, both black fact that the values do not differ beyond two decimals for ethnicity and Caribbean self-identification significantly any equation.
In Table 7, we can see that the odds of predict chronic conditions. However, we now see that joint having a DSM IV disorder in the last year do not vary inclusion of the self-identification measures has a similar Table 4 Pairwise correlation matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1.
African American 1 2. Caribbean self-ID 1 3. Black AA self-ID 41 1 4. Age 06 1 5. Education 03 1 7. Family income 01 14 36 1 8. CES-D 01 1 9. Chronic health 12 02 47 14 1 Lifetime diagnosis 04 01 02 33 13 73 1 Decimal points have been omitted Correlations greater than or equal to. Overall results suggest that lack of identification is significant in the prediction of chronic inclusion of all measures of self-identification suppresses conditions.
People choosing black AA self-identification the effect of black AA self-identification. It turns out to be are significantly less likely to have a higher number of a significant predictor of CES-D and chronic conditions, as chronic conditions. None of the self-identification measures are significant predictors. This means that cations of race-ethnicity result in different conclusions we can plausibly expect more confusion in explaining who regarding health status outcomes among the African chooses what identity, and we see an example of this in American and Caribbean black populations, even when Table 2.
In that table, only a minority of the Caribbean controlling for social, economic and demographic differ- black population chooses an ethnic label. In addition, ences. Our results are similar to those found in other recent knowing the chosen identity further begs the question of research Manly Because race is usually defined socially, rather than Given our findings, research must proceed somewhat biologically LaVeist , ; Morning in health cautiously with regard to the measure of race used.
One and social research, it is perfectly plausible to conceptu- issue is to be clear about whether group membership or alize race-ethnicity in many different ways Manly ; group identification is being measured. Group membership Morning Over the last 50 years of the U. It simply ascertains whether Decennial Census as race and ethnicity have been defined the respondent is a member of a particular group of inter- and measured very differently Mays et al.
For est. This is akin to our measure of black ethnicity. People example, people now defined as African American have were asked whether they were black, and then whether they been called Negro, Colored, black and Afro-American, as were from any of a list of Caribbean countries.
Group well as other terms Mays et al. Because almost all identification is different. As we find in this paper, membership e. For some purposes, this may be the construct public health surveillance and other generalizable pur- of interest. Our findings suggest it is necessary to be clear poses? The prior debate has most often focused on obser- about which construct is of importance in the research. It ver-classified versus self-identified categories, with other may also be that other relevant constructs, such as accul- arguments favoring self-identification McKenney and turation, may be a better measure given the aims of a Bennett However, our findings suggest that letting particular study.
What we are simply suggesting, as have people self-identify may still yield varying results previous writers LaVeist , ; Manly ; Mays depending upon the different questions used to elicit et al.
In addition, research has shown consideration of the measurement of race is necessary. The In this study, racial categorizations vary by the most definitive research suggests that this is particularly question used to assess race ethnicity, underscoring the true for non-affective psychoses Bebbington and Nayani social construction of race and likely influence of racism. Because the likely overall effect of most America and of being black American are distinct. Fur- of these limitations is to make our estimates more con- thermore, our categories of race that more consistently servative than might otherwise be the case, it is unlikely included African Americans were more closely associated that any positive, significant results found and reported in with poorer health outcomes, such as chronic conditions this study would have been affected by these limitations.
Findings such as those examined in This study endeavors to expand our understanding of the this paper, reiterate the critical need more work on the implications of race ethnicity among blacks. Because the conceptualization of race-ethnicity. While there is some NSAL included a population group, Caribbean blacks, for work in this area Morning , more is needed. This is which there is no pre-existing data on psychiatric diagnoses particularly true as the nature of race-ethnicity is becoming from national studies, future studies will be necessary to more fluid in the United States and across the world Mays replicate the findings reported in this paper.
Studies are et al. This may also be of the black and other minority populations, because of the importance for the white population. Much research in the importance of this endeavor for the collection of important health area subsumes whites under one racial umbrella. However, there is a need to examination the concepts of The documentation and elimination of health disparities is group membership and group identity for white Americans, dependent upon such efforts.
Only future studies that attend and assess their implications for health. This is a direction to these race conceptualization issues, and ethnic differ- for future research. The sample is based upon community dwelling individuals in households; homeless and institu- tionalized individuals were not included in the study. Since the underrepresented groups of homeless and institution- References alized blacks is relatively small; however, the effect of underrepresenting these groups is likely minimal.
It is Aguirre, A. American ethnicity. A schema-based certain sub-groups, young males in prison for example, approach to modeling an African American racial belief system. Also exclu- Barger, S. Ability of ethnic self- identification to partition modifiable health risk among US ded were individuals who did not speak English at all or residents of Mexican ancestry. American Journal of Public well enough to be interviewed, which may have resulted in Health, 98 11 , — The psychosis screening speaking Caribbean blacks.
As both underrepresented questionnaire. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 11— BiDil for heart on these results should also be small. In addition, the rel- failure in black patients: Implications of the US food and drug atively small and highly clustered sample of Caribbean administration approval. This information spread into popular thought and culture and served to dehumanize African-descended people further while fueling anti-black sentiment.
Nott and Geo. License: Creative Commons Attribution 4. Proslavery spokespeople defended their position by debasing the value of humanity in the people they held as property. They supported much of this crusade through the racist scientific findings of people like Samuel Morton, which was used to argue the inferiority of people of African descent. Taney wrote in the majority decision, "[black people] are not included, and were not intended to be included, under the word "citizens" in the Constitution, and can, therefore, claim none of the rights and privileges which that instrument provides for and secures to citizens of the United States.
On the contrary, they were at that time [of America's founding] considered as a subordinate and inferior class of beings who had been subjugated by the dominant race, and, whether emancipated or not, yet remained subject to their authority, and had no rights or privileges but such as those who held the power and the Government might choose to grant them. It was in this philosophical atmosphere that the Supreme Court heard one of the landmark cases of U.
Dred Scott and his wife claimed freedom on the basis that they had resided in a free state and were therefore now free persons. The Supreme Court ruled that Scott could not bring a suit in federal court because Black people were not citizens in the eyes of the U.
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney also ruled that slaves were property based on the Constitution, and therefore owners could not be deprived of their property. IV, no. Source: Library of Congress. The nation fiercely defended slavery under the guise of property rights because the forced labor of black people was extremely profitable to the entire country.
America further developed its concept of race in the form of racist theories and beliefs - created to protect the slavery-built economy. These beliefs also resulted in the establishment of widespread anti-black sentiments, which would influence the American consciousness long after slavery ended. I have no country. What country have I?
The Institutions of this country do not know me - do not recognize me as a man. Segregation was a formal system of separating people in U.
Jim Crow Laws The segregation and disenfranchisement laws known as "Jim Crow" represented a formal, codified system of racial apartheid that dominated the American South for three-quarters of a century beginning in the s. The laws affected almost every aspect of daily life, mandating segregation of schools, parks, libraries, drinking fountains, restrooms, buses, trains, and restaurants.
Reconstructing Race in the Nadir When the Civil War ended slavery, the entire nation shifted its economic reliance to free labor. White society, particularly in the South, were reluctant to shift their views of black Americans and sought ways to continue exploiting the labor of African descended people while simultaneously remaining privileged.
The debt-bonded labor system called sharecropping and hierarchical social order of segregation called Jim Crow would lay the foundation for a deepening racial divide.
When white Americans started to fear economic competition from the immigrants, the nation's racist logic resulted in the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of In an era of waves of new immigration from Europe, the law specifically blocked the legal arrival of the Chinese. After the Civil War and Reconstruction, many localities and states enacted laws and social norms that would re-establish the social order where whiteness was supreme.
Ferguson Supreme Court case [see video below]. By law, Americans could lawfully separate people in society and discriminate against black Americans based on race. The Plessy v. It resulted in the creation of a multitude of new racist laws and practices whose ramifications are still impacting the country today. American society drew upon centuries of racist ideas to justify this new form of exclusion and exploitation, especially that of scientific racism and Social Darwinism.
Newly elaborated racist concepts reinforced the societal belief in supposedly inherent differences between black and white people — helping keep alive the concept of race and racial difference for all people in America. African Americans were excluded from the planning of the world's fair and from substantial roles during the fair. Wells-Barnett among them - wrote a pamphlet excoriating the racist decisions made, which excluded blacks from sharing the world stage as American citizens.
Read More. Backed by the scientific racism of the midth century, a branch of pseudoscience called eugenics contributed to further legitimizing societal belief in the biological superiority of those people considered white and the subjugation of other groups in descending order as skin tones darkened.
Eugenics argued that people could be divided up into various races of people according to their genetic descent and were predisposed to be either superior or inferior by nature and in culture. In this very public forum, people were displayed in various arrangements of progress and reinforcing to the general and visiting public the racial hierarchy of the time.
Racial integrity laws were passed by the General Assembly to protect "whiteness" against what many Virginians perceived to be the negative effects of race-mixing. They included the Racial Integrity Act of , which prohibited interracial marriage and defined as white a person "who has no trace whatsoever of any blood other than Caucasian"; the Public Assemblages Act of , which required all public meeting spaces to be strictly segregated; and a third act , passed in , that defined as black a person who has even a trace of African American ancestry.
The right to belong is prior to all other distributive decisions since it is members who make those decisions. Belongingness entails an unwavering commitment to not simply tolerating and respecting difference but to ensuring that all people are welcome and feel that they belong in the society. It is a process by which the most marginalized outgroups are brought into the center of our concern through higher order love—the Beloved Community that Dr. King envisioned. A prime example of how we might do this is by sending messages to outgroups that they belong and are welcome in our community and society.
In an effort to improve academic performance and graduation rates among marginalized student populations at the University of Texas, the university began reaching out to at-risk students with welcoming messages.
Belongingness must be more than expressive; it must be institutionalized as well. To counteract othering, we must focus on providing access to resources and critical institutions to disadvantaged groups. At the same time, integration is necessary but not always sufficient. Many groups require more than access; they require special accommodations. Formal guarantees of equal protection or equal rights are often insufficient to create inclusive structures.
Design of societal-level arrangements must be inclusive to all but especially sensitive to the most marginalized and most multiply disadvantaged. Lisa M. When individuals or groups experience multiple forms of disadvantage simultaneously, interventions that merely address or target one form of disadvantage will fail to free those individuals from disabling barriers.
Democratic societies may tend to advantage electoral majorities over the interests of minorities, which merely underscores the need for structural safeguards for fairness and inclusivity. There must be representational forms that give voice to minority needs and to ensure that the structures and political processes do not burden minority groups. With a rights-based approach, there are successful examples of overcoming polarization, such as the new consensus on same-sex marriage.
Voice can give expression to group-based needs and issues without resorting to segregation or secession. This approach is consistent with pluralism and multiculturalism in a democracy. Pluralism and multiculturalism are solutions to the problem of othering that provide space for not only tolerance or accommodation of difference but that ultimately support the creation of new inclusive narratives, identities, and structures.
If the idea of creating new identities seems radical, consider how recent American national identity is in a historical context, let alone the myriad forms of gender and sex-based identities have emerged only in recent years. Socially constructed group-based identities are subject to revision and redefinition, and may become more or less salient depending on social conditions. Even individuals may be sorted differently depending on social cues that may map to categorical meanings.
Categorical boundaries are surprisingly fluid, not only at the individual level but at the group level as well. We must not only create inclusive structures, but we must foster new identities and inclusive narratives that can support us all. This means generating stories of inclusion that reframe our individual and group identities while rejecting narratives that pit us against others.
This is partly why President Obama rejects the cultural and ethnic arguments visible in the work of scholars like Samuel Huntington, who counsel in favor of curtailing Latin American immigration and pit Islam as antithetical to the liberal order. Huntington, Who Are We? The novel entered a cultural matrix in which debates over immigration, integration, and fear of terrorism are central elements.
Although a satire, the novel preys upon fears within Western Europe of growing Muslim populations, just as refugee numbers crest toward numbers not seen since WW II. As we transition through political and economic realignments, we also go through a remaking of ourselves. The end of empires and the Cold War were large-scale structural changes that dissolved one set of identities without replacing them with viable, solidaristic alternatives. It is little wonder that latent ethnic and religious identities become most salient.
We must offer inclusive alternatives. This article explored the widespread problem of othering in the United States and the world. Virtually every global and regional conflict, as well as persistent form of marginality or inequality, is undergirded by the set of processes that deny full inclusion and membership in society. This article argued that othering is not only a more descriptively inclusive term that captures the many expressions of broad prejudice across any of the dimensions of group-based difference, but it serves as a conceptual framework featuring a generalizable set of processes that engender group-based marginality.
Othering and Belonging is a framework that allows us to observe and identify a common set of structural processes and dynamics while remaining sensitive to the particulars of each case. Group-based othering may occur along any salient social dimension, such as race, gender, religion, LGBTQ status, ability, or any socially significant marker or characteristic. This article presented mechanisms by which social differences become institutionalized and structured in the world, and conditions under which identities may shift and demagoguery may seem most appealing.
Finally, we examined how promoting belonging must begin by expanding the circle of human concern. Belonging is the most important good we distribute in society, as it is prior to and informs all other distributive decisions. We must support the creation of structures of inclusion that recognize and accommodate difference, rather than seek to erase it. We need practices that create voice without denying our deep interrelationship.
We cannot deny existential anxieties in the human condition. These anxieties can be moved into directions of fear and anger or toward empathy and collective solidarity.
In periods of turbulent upheaval and instability, the siren call of the demagogue has greater power, but whether a society falls victim to it depends upon the choices of political leaders and the stories they tell. The authors would like to thank Connie Cagampang Heller, Michael Omi, and Elsadig Elsheikh for their feedback and comments, and Darren Arquero for his research assistance.
Since then, hundreds of thousands of Rohingyas have been driven from their homes and denied full citizenship rights, despite having lived in Myanmar for centuries. The Armenian population is Christian in the predominantly Muslim country and favors secession and reuniting with bordering Armenia. In the fall of , the Turkish government ordered a military attack on separatist Kurds in southern Turkey, and subsequently instituted a curfew in Kurdish-majority towns.
Cecilia Paredes Both Worlds. Cecilia Paredes Transition. Cecilia Paredes Paradise Hands. As a historical parallel, it is worth noting that similar reasoning has been advanced in defense of the proposals to prohibit Muslim immigrants and refugees, accompanied by critiques of sharia law as inconsistent with democratic principles and individual liberty.
See Daniel A. Tagged with: Issue 1. Although the Rohingya settled lands in modern-day Myanmar in the sixteenth century, they often continue to be regarded as outsiders.
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